Sweeping The Skies:
Air Force Fighter Programs

The United States Air Force inventory included three categories of fighter aircraft in the Korean War period: fighter-bombers for daytime close air support and interdiction missions, air superiority fighters for daytime attacks on enemy fighters, and interceptors for locating and destroying enemy bombers. At the beginning of the war, all Air Force fighters in these roles, including those that would enter service in 1951 and 1952, had been designed prior to 1947. Because of budget pressures during the last half of the 1940s, the Air Force had chosen to focus on existing aircraft instead of contracting for new designs. The result was that in 1950—and with the appearance of Soviet-built MiGs over Korea—the Air Force could not claim clear technological superiority in the air combat arena.

During the early 1950s, HQ Air Force still vacillated between improving current aircraft and accelerating the development and production of new aircraft. As a compromise, the North American F-86 Sabre and the Republic F-84 Thunderjet were chosen for further development, and the Century Series of aircraft was chosen for accelerated development. During this time, WADC began work on designs for two Century Series interceptor fighters (the Convair F-102 Delta Dagger and the Republic XF-103), an air superiority fighter (the North American F-100 Super Sabre), and a new category of fighter—the long-range, or penetration, escort (the McDonnell F-101 Voodoo) designed to accompany and protect attacking bombers. Still, none of these latter aircraft were projected for production prior to 1956. In addition, the troubled Northrop F-89 Scorpion, designed as an all-weather interceptor in 1948, continued to require extensive support engineering in order to become combat-ready.

In Korea, four major jet fighters filled the combat roles of the Air Force: the Lockheed F-80 Shooting Star, the F-84 Thunderjet, the F-86 Sabre, and the Lockheed F-94 Starfire. The propeller-driven North American F-51 Mustang and F-82 Twin Mustang also flew missions during the war.

The history of the F-51 extends back to 1940, when it was originally developed for Great Britain. The Air Corps quickly recognized its value, however, and ordered it into service as the P-51 Mustang. The single-engine, propeller-driven fighter went on to become one of the most successful combat aircraft of World War II. The type was redesignated the F-51 in 1948.1

Many of the F-51s deployed to Korea were from Air National Guard units in the United States. The aircraft was flown not only by the United States Air Force, but also by the Air Forces of South Africa, Australia, and the Republic of Korea. In mid-July 1950, 145 Mustangs were loaded on an aircraft carrier and transported to FEAF. The following month, AMC depots were reconditioning an additional 80 stored F-51s, including 42 reconnaissance variants called RF-51s, for use in the Far East. The RF-51 flew its first mission in December 1950.2

In close air support missions in Korea, the F-51 had numerous advantages over the jet-powered F-80. It could carry more ordnance, and it had greater endurance. It could also operate on shorter and rougher airfields. On the negative side, the plane’s design included an exposed coolant radiator, which made it susceptible to damage by enemy ground fire. In early 1953, the F-51 was replaced by the F-86F.3

The F-80 was the first true operational jet fighter in the Air Force inventory. The Army Air Forces had contracted with Lockheed to design a jet-propelled fighter in May 1943, and when the XP-80 Shooting Star had its first flight on 8 January 1944, it became the first American aircraft to exceed 500 miles per hour in level flight. The F-80C was the Shooting Star version that participated in Korean combat missions. It first entered service in 1948 and deployed to FEAF in 1949. The last F-80C came off the production line in June 1950.4

The F-80 was designed to be a day interceptor, but its limited performance, especially in combat with the much faster MiG, soon relegated it to the role of fighter-bomber in Korea. Initially, the F-80 and the F-51 provided most of the air support for ground troops. The lack of runways suitable for jet aircraft in Korea meant the F-80 had to be based in Japan, which left it with little loiter time in the combat zone. As a result, several F-80 squadrons of the Fifth Air Force were reequipped with the propeller-driven F-51.5

The F-80 was nearly obsolete when it came out of production, and by the winter of 1950, in order to do its job, it needed protection from the F-86 against the MiG. Still, despite its relatively slow speed and limited range, the aircraft performed admirably in Korea and was able to withstand rough conditions. On 8 November 1950, an F-80 flown by Lieutenant Russell J. Brown destroyed a MiG during the first conclusive jet-to-jet aerial battle. The F-80 continued flying missions in Korea until 30 April 1953, when all F-80s in Korea were replaced with either the F-84 or F-86.6

Pilots and ground crews of the F-80 were very impressed with the aircraft’s reliability, and the urgency of the moment may have led to some performance failures due to over-use. One maintainer was quoted as saying “Lockheed had designed such a great airplane that it seemed all we had to do was fill the tanks, arm it, and send it back on its way. Many of our F-80s were so busy that they never had the 25-hour and 50-hour maintenance done. We flew them for 100 hours, then sent them back to Japan for the 100-hour inspection and to patch up the holes.” Crews also loaded the aircraft with more ordnance than was authorized, which at times made it difficult for the planes to get off the ground. To remedy this, they attached two jet-assisted takeoff bottles to the fuselage.7 Such practices may have encouraged complaints about the aircraft from FEAF. In fact, WADC inspections of failed landing gear indicated signs of extreme stress from rough operation, high gross weight loads, and long periods of strenuous service.8

Engineers spent little time or effort on the F-80C after it went out of production, but they did receive a variety of complaints from FEAF for which they developed quick fixes to keep the plane operational. For example, early in the first year of the war, the Engineering Division at AMC designed, developed, and flight-tested a mid-span bomb-rack pylon prototype in one month. This allowed the aircraft to carry both bombs and wing tanks for increased range. They also designed an adaptor for firing 3-inch rockets from the plane. Even before the war began, however, engineers had concurred that the F-80 was at its limit for profitable improvement. Instead, WADC gave more attention to the F-94, the lineal descendent of the F-80.9

The North American F-82 Twin Mustang was essentially a pair of F-51 Mustangs connected by a center wing panel and tailplane. The F-82 had a longer range than the F-51 to allow it to escort B-29s deep into enemy territory. North American presented the Army Air Forces with a design in February 1944, and the same month the AAF issued an order for 500 planes. Following the war, when many contracts were cancelled, the F-82 contract was finalized at 270 planes, 250 of which were to be the long-range F-82E escorts. By December 1948, 96 F-82Es were in service as long-range escort fighters.

In addition to the F-82E, by March 1949, the Air Force had accepted 91 F-82Fs, 45 F-82Gs, and 14 F-82Hs at a cost of $215,154 per plane. These are the aircraft (all-weather fighter interceptors) that participated in combat in Korea. The differences from the previous model were a nacelle under the center wing panel for radar equipment (the AN/APG-28 in the F and the SCR-720C in the G), an automatic pilot, and accommodations for a radar operator instead of a second pilot. The H series was the same as the F and G, but winterized. The aircraft could carry four 1,000-pound bombs, two 2,000-pound bombs, or 25 5-inch rockets. It was also equipped with six 0.5 inch Browning 53-2 machine guns in the center wing panel.

Two squadrons in the Far East—the 68th Fighter All-Weather Squadron at Itazuke Air Base, Japan, and the 4th Fighter All-Weather Squadron of the Twentieth Air Force at Kadena Air Base, Okinawa—were equipped with F-82s prior to the beginning of the Korean War. The F-82’s role in the war was unspectacular despite its having scored the first aerial victory of the war by downing a Soviet-built Yakovlev (YAK)-11 on 27 June 1950. During their time in Korea, pilots operating the F-82s only destroyed 20 enemy planes, and all but four of them were caught on the ground. Parts shortages and maintenance problems plagued the F-82s to the point that the Air Force withdrew all of the aircraft from combat in February 1952. By June 1953, all F-82s had been stricken from the Air Force inventory. It was the last propeller-driven fighter in the active Air Force with a reciprocating engine.10

Successor to the P-47 Thunderbolt of World War II fame, the Republic F-84 Thunderjet was designed in 1944 as a mid-wing day fighter with a top speed of 600 miles per hour and a radius of action of 705 miles. In early 1945, the Army Air Forces ordered 100 models of the then-designated P-84, and the aircraft had its first flight the following year. The F-84D and F-84E both entered operational service in 1949 and were the first models of the F-84 to participate in Korea. By this time, many of the deficiencies of the earlier models had been corrected, and tests at Wright-Patterson showed that the F-84 exceeded the performance of the F-80 in range, acceleration, load-carrying ability, high altitude climb, and level flight speed. In December 1950, just one week ahead of the F-86, sixty F-84Es arrived for combat duty in Korea with the 27th Fighter Escort Wing. The F-84G, which entered service in 1951, was the first single-seat fighter-bomber with atomic capability. As compared to the E model, it had a better engine, automatic pilot, and in-flight refueling devices. The F-84G deployed to Korea in the summer of 1952.11

Like the F-80, the F-84 had been designed and intended as a day interceptor. Both proved inadequate to perform day-fighter missions in Korean operations. The MiG-15 was 40 to 80 knots faster than the F-84, and 60 to 100 knots faster than the F-80. Consequently, the primary mission of F-80s and F-84s in the Far East was a task that their designers had only envisioned as a secondary mission: close air support of ground forces. The heavy bomb load of the F-84 made it particularly effective; the F-84E could carry up to 4,500 pounds and the F-84G could carry up to 6,000 pounds of bombs. Carrying such weights affected endurance, however, so that the F-84 could spend only 30 minutes in the combat zone before returning to its bases in southern Japan.12

From the beginning, the F-84 had maintenance difficulties due to a shortage of engines and spare parts. Stocks of the Allison-built General Electric J35-A-17 engine were limited by sluggish production, and because they required more frequent overhauls than initially assumed, their poor availability rate threatened the operational capability of the aircraft.13

Throughout the war, engineers at WADC continued support engineering on the basic F-84 and development engineering on several improved variants, including the F-84E, F-84F, and F-84G models. Common problems included excessive engine vibration and wing tip fuel tank complications. After several solid-glass F-84 canopies shattered, engineers rigorously tested laminated glass replacements developed by Libbey-Owens-Ford. Results of the tests led the Aircraft Laboratory to recommend that laminated canopies, made with two sheets of plexiglass and an interlayer of either mylar or nylon (two new bonding materials) be installed on all F-84s.14

The hastily constructed and over-used runways in the Far East, particularly those in Korea, led Center engineers to develop a jettisonable wheel for the F-84. A second wheel was attached to each of the existing forward landing gear by a simple extension of the axle. Used during takeoff, the wheel could support half of the weight of the aircraft and then be dropped after takeoff, which reduced the weight of the aircraft and allowed it to fly longer and land easier. Tests indicated that an aircraft using the wheel could accelerate twice as fast on wet ground. The wheel used during test flights was manufactured by Bendix Corporation. In the summer of 1952, WADC sent aircraft manufacturers a report outlining the test results for use in future aircraft designs. Although the wheel was scheduled for installation on the F-84 in January 1952, it is unknown if the program was completed.15

The F-84D and E series were phased out beginning in mid-1952. The F-84G began its phase-out in 1955 after a brief stint with the newly formed Air Force Air Demonstration Squadron, known as the Thunderbirds. Because engineers believed its design could be improved, development work on the F-84 continued with the F series. The F-84F had a swept wing and tail instead of the straight wing-tail combination on the basic F-84. It also had a J65 turbojet engine with 7,220-pound thrust output, which gave the F model more speed than the F-86H, which was at that time the fastest American jet. Overall, the F-84F, which became operational in January 1954, was a far superior aircraft to its predecessor F-84 models.16

In 1945, the Army Air Force asked for a straight-wing variant of the North American XFJ-1 (a planned Navy jet fighter) as a medium-range day fighter/fighter escort/dive bomber. Although the XP-86 did not meet the requirement for a top speed of 600 miles per hour, North American Aviation incorporated German swept-wing design research into the design to give it more speed. The Air Force accepted the swept-wing jet fighter and called it the XP-86 Sabre. During an April 1948 test flight, the prototype exceeded Mach 1. The F-86A became operational in early 1949. In December 1950, the F-86A was deployed to Korea with the 4th Fighter Interceptor Group. The E model, which deployed to Korea in July 1951, had controlled and coordinated tailplanes and elevators. The F model, enhanced as a fighter-bomber specifically for use in Korea, had a higher thrust engine, droppable fuel tanks, and the “6-3” solid wing leading edge. It was sent to Korea with the 51st Fighter Interceptor Wing in mid-1952. By the fall of 1952, the F-86As in Korea were completely replaced by the F-86E and F-86F models. The RF-86F also served in Korea with the 67th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing.17

Initially planned for B-29 escort in North Korea, the F-86 was soon shifted to air superiority missions. The F-86A flew its first combat mission in Korea on 16 December 1950, and the next day, Lieutenant Colonel Bruce Hinton, commander of the 336th Fighter Squadron, was victorious in the first aerial combat between swept-wing fighters.18

The F-86 had been in service in Korea for almost a year, performing exceptionally well as an air superiority fighter, when the Unsatisfactory Reports began streaming into WADC. On 20 October 1951, Colonel B.S. Preston, commander of the 4th Fighter Interceptor Group in Korea, complained that the “MiG can out climb the F-86 at any altitude, with the difference becoming increasingly greater from above 32,000 feet to 45,000 feet.” Preston recommended the installation of a new engine that could deliver over 6,500 pounds of thrust, 1,300 pounds more than the J47-GE-13 turbojet installed in the combat F-86s. Shortly thereafter, Colonel John Meyer, a combat returnee, provided WADC with his thoughts on improving the performance of the F-86. He believed that a solid leading edged-wing would appreciably increase the plane’s speed and rate of climb, and that inclusion of fuel cells in the new leading edge would extend the range of the aircraft as much as drag-producing wing tanks. Meyer’s final recommendation was to allow higher tailpipe temperatures, which could increase thrust and rate of climb by 15 and 30 percent, respectively.19

WADC engineers immediately began studies to address the theories of Colonels Preston and Meyer. Two main projects and ten sub-tasks were set up; many of these carried long-term objectives, while others were given high priority ratings in order to become combat-ready as quickly as possible. Rate of climb was the foremost priority, with increased speed and acceleration in level flight set as secondary goals.20 These projects occupied the engineers at WADC throughout the remainder of the Korean War.

The first project involved the solid leading edge wing. Engineers with WADC sealed the leading edge slats on the F-86 with fabric and dope, and subsequent flights proved that Meyer’s prediction of increased speed was correct. Further tests with a permanent solid leading edge were undertaken at Edwards AFB. The conclusions of the test pilots again mirrored Meyer’s claim. Modification kits were ordered, and AMC set up Project PETER RABBIT to get the kits to FEAF immediately. This inexpensive modification, which reached FEAF in the summer of 1952, became known as the “6-3” solid-wing leading edge configuration (also the extended leading edge) because it extended the wing chord by six inches at the base of the wing and three inches at the wing tip. Combat pilots were immediately impressed, and official WADC histories called this “undoubtedly one of the most spectacularly successful undertakings of its kind in Air Force history.”21

Over-temperature operation of the J47 engine was the second major phase of the improvement program. Flight tests conducted by North American Aviation proved that the operation of the engine at higher than normal temperatures increased the high-altitude rate of climb by 2,000 feet per minute. Further tests by the Power Plant Laboratory also provided the same conclusions, but the laboratory’s engineers warned of rapid turbine blade deterioration resulting after ten minutes’ operation. Their primary concern was that the advantages would be outweighed by increased maintenance and supply problems, which were already severe in Korea. WADC was unenthusiastic about using over-temperature to increase thrust, but it left the decision up to combat units.22

Additional projects aimed at increasing the performance of the F-86 included fuel cells in the new leading edge, a weight reduction program, use of auxiliary liquid-fuel rocket engines, water injection and pre-turbine injection of fuel as means of thrust augmentation, and a porous leading edge to increase lift and reduce drag thus shortening take-off and landing distance requirements. The latter three projects were relegated to long-range planning. The weight reduction plans were confounded by the fact that, although components could be removed, the weight built into the airframe to accommodate those components could not be removed without redesigning the entire structure. Wind tunnel tests were conducted on the fuel wing to determine stability and control characteristics in late 1952, but this development was not expected to be perfected in the near future.23

Considered one of the most promising proposals in the improvement program, the installation of liquid-fuel rocket engines was hampered by funding and scheduled delivery date of the engines. A similar proposal was actually combat-tested in Korea late in 1952. Three 1,000-pound solid-fuel rockets (jet-assisted take off or JATO rockets) were installed in the F-86, and these provided a 100 percent increase in rate of climb at high altitudes. The gain was temporary, basically a “flash” performance needed to overtake or elude a MiG, and the downside was increased weight and drag. Combat pilots found the modification undesirable and WADC conducted no further effort in this area. They continued to have hope for the liquid-fuel rockets, although it would be at least two years before such a modification could be incorporated.24

Finally, water-alcohol injection substantially increased the thrust of the F-86’s engine, but the weight of the additive reduced the fuel capacity (and thus range) of the aircraft. Initial tests of pre-turbine fuel injection indicated a reduced engine life accompanying the 20 percent increase in thrust. Later tests proved, however, that engine life was not adversely affected by pre-turbine injection. Flight tests in March of 1953 resulted in some problems with flameouts and high temperatures in the tailpipe. Still, results were promising, and the pre-turbine injection process virtually cancelled the water-injection program.25

In addition to the major performance improvement program, WADC also had to contend with complaints about the F-86 J-1 fire control system. FEAF pilots and maintenance crews complained of unreliable radar operation and gun sight maintenance difficulties. Correction of this problem was put on a “blitz” basis by the Armament Laboratory, and through Project JAY BIRD, WADC engineers worked with AMC to modernize the fire control system. A WADC-AMC team traveled to Japan to find that the major problem appeared to be with maintenance, training, and spare parts supply, not with engineering. However, they removed all the components of the J-1 system (except the A-1CM sight) from the combat F-86s and replaced them with the AN/APG-30 radar and an improved power supply. The old J-1 system was sent to a local manufacturer for modification to the new configuration. By the time the project was closed out in July 1952, 159 F-86s had been retrofitted with the new J-1 system.26

The F-86 was roughly comparable to the MiG-15, but it was flown by more experienced and aggressive pilots. However, it soon proved to have inadequate armament, which was remedied in the F-86F model. This later version could carry a variety of external stores, including bombs and the 5-inch High Velocity Aircraft Rocket (HVAR). Communist MiGs consistently outnumbered available F-86 strength throughout the war. In July 1953, the United States could only field just under 300 F-86s as opposed to the 800 MiGs in the Communist inventory. Still, by the end of the war, at least 10 MiGs had been downed for every F-86 lost

The F-86A, E, and F models were phased out of the Air Force inventory within a year after the Korean War, although Air National Guard units continued to use these aircraft throughout the 1950s. Shortly before the end of the war, the F-86D all-weather interceptor reached operational service, two years behind schedule. It was virtually a new design with stronger wings and an enlarged vertical tail. The accommodations for a second crewmember were replaced with a sophisticated electronics system. The F-86D was the first single-seat fighter armed with rockets instead of machine guns. It also had a much more elaborate radar fire control system and was powered with a J47-GE-17 engine, enabling the F-86D to exceed the speed of the final model in the series, the F-86H. When the F-86 became obsolete, the Air Force planned to replace it with the F-100 Sabre 45, later renamed the Super Sabre.27

Design origins of the Lockheed F-94 Starfire lay in the F-80 Shooting Star and the two-seat T-33 trainer. When the Air Force defined its requirements for an all-weather jet interceptor, the F-94 was more readily available than the F-89 originally planned for that role. The F-94A, comprised of 75 percent F-80C parts, underwent its first flight in July 1949 and entered operational service in May 1950. The F-94B, which entered service in the spring of 1951, included gyroscopic instruments for more accurate landings in poor weather, a high-pressure oxygen system, and larger wing-tip fuel tanks mounted integrally along the wing’s centerline instead of being attached under the wings. Three F-94s were given accelerated service tests between August and October to allow WADC to evaluate radar, afterburner starting, range and endurance, maintenance problems, and supply requirements. During a 24-hour period, one of these planes was flown for a total of 23 hours and 17 minutes with favorable results.28

The F-94B was sent to the Far East with the 68th Fighter Interceptor Squadron in March 1951, but it did not actually enter the Korean theater until December. Up to that time, the Air Force had restricted the few available F-94s to local air-defense scrambles over Suwon Airfield, Japan. After being relieved of these restrictions, the F-94, fitted with the newest fire-control system (the E-5 replaced the E-1 in the F-94C), proved to be a reliable escort for the B-29 during bad weather and at night. The 319th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron deployed the F-94 in groups of six to act as barriers 30 miles in advance of the bombers. An F-94 crew scored their first kill in January 1953, when they relied solely on radar to destroy an enemy LA-9 fighter. The F-94 also provided escort for the B-26, and it conducted enemy fighter interception missions.29

The F-94 had a variety of in-service problems, including turbine blade failures, cramped cockpits, and imperfect fuel systems. The plane was also unstable and hard to maneuver at high altitudes. Perhaps its greatest problem, however, was the lack of adequate de-icing equipment, which hindered its use as an all-weather fighter. This problem was partially solved early in 1952, when the F-94 was fitted with de-icing boots developed by WADC engineers.30

As described by WADC’s Commander, General Boyd, the F-94 was a “second-rate airplane” and “not worthy of any sustained improvement effort.”31 Despite its deficiencies, however, the F-94 proved to be less troublesome than the more complex F-89 Scorpion. Development work continued on the F-94 through the early part of 1952 simply because there was to be no replacement available in the near future. Most F-94s were phased out of the Air Force inventory beginning in mid-1954. The final model, the F-94C, was phased out in 1959.

When the Korean War began, the Air Force could only field fighters that had entered design and development prior to 1947. For the 1954-1957 period, however, five new fighters were at various points in the research and development cycle. They were popularly called the Century Series due to their numerical designations. Three of these aircraft, the F-100, the F-101, and the YF-102 were descended from existing fighter designs. The remaining two, the F-103 and the F-104, were entirely new concept approaches that entered their initial design stages in 1952. None of the Century Series fighters would reach production during the Korean War, but their development was of the highest priority during the early 1950s. Because of Korean air combat needs, the Air Force chose to accelerate development of the first three Century fighters in 1952.32

HQ Air Force considered the F-100 Sabre-45 (later called the Super Sabre) to be an improvement of the latest F-86 design and ordered it for immediate production. The F-100 was more than an updated F-86, however. The new aircraft incorporated a 45-degree angle swept wing, a larger fuselage, new armament (the 20mm T-160 guns in place of the .50 caliber machine guns), and a new engine (the J57-P-7 Pratt and Whitney turbojet rated at 14,800 pounds of thrust) complete with afterburner. North American Aviation completed much of the design on its own, when the Air Force ordered production models of the aircraft in 1952 even though a flight-worthy prototype had not yet been built. The first flight of the YF-100A took place on 25 May 1953 with no major deficiencies noted. By mid year, however, three problems became apparent: low speed handling characteristics, poor visibility over the nose during takeoff and landing, and inadequate static and dynamic stability. WADC engineers quickly addressed these problems, and the F-100A aircraft, the world’s first operational supersonic fighter, entered Air Force squadrons in the fall of 1954.33

The McDonnell F-101 Voodoo swept wing, twin-engine jet fighter was derived from the XF-88, which first flew in late 1948. The XF-88 program had been cancelled in 1950 due to lack of funding, but it was reactivated in early 1951 in response to Korean combat experiences that proved the need for a long-range bomber escort. Like the F-100, the F-101 also used the J57 engines, four 20mm T-160 cannon, and built-in air refueling equipment. The new aircraft, planned to replace the F-84, made its first flight in the fall of 1954 and entered service in 1957. In addition to its role as bomber escort, the aircraft had strategic striking and air-to-air combat capabilities. The Air Force also adapted the aircraft for reconnaissance missions. The unarmed RF-101A had a longer nose to provide for photographic equipment but was otherwise similar to the F-101.34

The Convair F-102 Delta Dagger was the first Air Force delta-wing aircraft scheduled for large-scale production. It was a refined version of the XF-92A research aircraft, which first flew in 1948. As contracted for in August 1951, the F-102 interceptor was designed to use the British J67 Olympus turbojet engine and an electronics suite (the Hughes MX-1179) packaged to integrate fire control, flight control, navigation, and communications. The interceptor also was to have the capability of carrying Hughes GAR-1 Falcon missiles and 2.75-inch folding-fin aircraft rockets within its fuselage. In 1952, many of the F-102’s components, including the J67 engine, were still in development, and the Air Force pushed ahead with very limited production using available J57 engines and simplified electronics equipment. The Delta Dagger entered service in April 1956.35

The YF-103 was an even more high-performance interceptor being developed by Republic Aviation at the same time as the F-102. The YF-103’s design was challenging in that the airframe was to have been constructed primarily of titanium alloys. These new materials were necessary for the aircraft to achieve its exceptional performance requirements. In order to achieve speeds in excess of Mach 3, the XF-103’s propulsion system was a combination of turbojet and ramjet engines. The F-103 was “so radical, so advanced, and incorporated so many unproven components” that many engineers doubted it would ever reach production. By early 1953, the program had become an “experimental weapon system,” and no FY1954 funds were allotted for an extended development program. In 1957, the program was cancelled altogether.36

Finally, development of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, an advanced day fighter scheduled to replace the F-100, began in 1952 but did not make significant progress until mid-1954. This aircraft, called a “minimum concept weapon,” was meant to perform air superiority missions at lower expense than its more complex contemporaries. The F-104 had a thin straight wing attached to a long, slender fuselage, a high all-maneuvering tail, and was able to reach a top speed of Mach 1.83. Although the aircraft made its first flight in 1956, it did not enter operational service until two years later.37

Facts Relating to this Chapter

Last Update: 2 Jan 03